A Psychological Theory of Martydrom
Copyright © 1989 by Fereshteh T. Bethel

Introduction

Since the inception of the Bahá'í Faith in 1844, its members 
have frequently been discriminated against and persecuted for 
their religious beliefs.1 With varying degrees of intensity the 
persecutions have been mostly instigated by the clergy of the 
Shi'ah sect of Islam and are often implemented by the 
government in power.2 

Between 1979 and 1982 members of the Bahá'í Faith, the 
largest religious minority in Iran, with no rights under the law, 
were persecuted by the government of the Islamic Republic of 
Iran because of differences in religious ideologies, beliefs, and 
convictions. During this period approximately 106 Iranian 
Bahá'ís, most of whom held Bahá'í administrative and 
leadership positions, were executed when they refused to 
recant their faith, thus opening a new chapter of religious 
martyrdom.3 In addition, the homes of individual Bahá'ís, 
along with properties belonging to the Bahá'í Faith, were 
confiscated, and assets were frozen. Thousands of Bahá'ís lost 
their employment, students were barred from attending public 
schools, farmers' crops were burned, Bahá'í cemeteries were 
desecrated, and Bahá'í holy places confiscated or 
demolished.4 

There are several deeply rooted reasons for the theological 
differences that led to the persecution and execution of the 
Iranian Bahá'ís by the Shi'ah Muslims. A few of them include 
the following. 

First, because the Muslims believe in the finality of the 
Prophet Muhammad in the line of the Prophets, they recognize 
no religion making claims to a new revelation.5 Therefore, 
they consider the Bahá'í Faith a threat to the position of Islam, 
bringing its annulment and a challenge to the power of the 
Shi'ah clergy, who are considered vice-regents of 
Muhammad.6 

Second, some of the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith, such as 
equal rights and opportunities for men and women, harmony 
of science and religion, independent investigation of truth, and 
abolition of the institution of the priesthood have all been 
considered by the Shi'ah clergy a challenge to their hold on 
the masses.7 

Third, when a society like Iran is under stress, it needs a 
scapegoat to absorb societal problems. This need translates 
into the persecution of a group. Between 1979 and 1982 that 
group was the Bahá'ís.8 

The persecutions of the Bahá'ís in Iran have been cyclical and 
have had various degrees of severity during different historical 
periods. Since the origin of the Bahá'í Faith in 1844, more 
than twenty thousand followers have been martyred for their 
adherence to the Bahá'í Faith.9 The nature of the recent 
persecutions was considered by the Bahá'ís as being among 
the worst they have ever experienced.10 However, the 
government of the Islamic Republic of Iran denied that the 
Bahá'ís were killed because of religious differences; rather, 
without presenting any supportive documents to the public, 
they asserted that the Bahá'ís were killed because they were 
spies or agents of foreign elements.11 These types of 
accusations were variously labeled: Zionism, or subservience 
to the interests of the imperialistic powers, or involvement in 
the "corruption of earth" and "warring against Islam and 
God." Yet, if the Bahá'ís had recanted their faith, they would 
have been set free. This alone is sufficient proof of the 
baselessness of the allegations.12 

The remarkable thing about the response of the Bahá'ís to 
their persecution (hardship, torment, torture, suffering, pain) 
and execution, which are described in psychological terms as 
severe social stressors, was that it was of an atypical, 
unconventional, and positive nature, according to numerous 
reports of Bahá'í and non-Bahá'í observers (used for the 
purpose of behavioral cross-validation in this study). 13 

In confirmation of the observers' reports, a study of the 
personal documents of Bahá'í martyrs in Iran resulted in the 
formulation of a psychological theory of martyrdom showing 
that the beliefs and responses of persecuted and executed 
Bahá'í martyrs were contrary to the explanations of existing 
psychological theory on severe social stressors. The study 
regarded persecution and execution as severe social stressors 
directed at stamping out the beliefs of members of the Bahá'í 
Faith. The theory proposed that explanations for the atypical 
beliefs and responses of the Bahá'í martyrs can be found in 
their written documents. Further, the theory suggests the 
central importance of the victimized individual's spiritual 
reality (nonphysical and nonmaterial reality) as the principle 
of guidance and support as he or she psychologically 
attempted to cope with persecution and death. 

A search of existing professional literature reveals that there is 
relatively little psychological documentation on martyrs and 
martyrdom, for psychological research on the subject 
generally concentrates on non-empirical studies. Moreover, 
within the field of religion only brief theoretical papers and 
non-quantified (non-empirical) studies appear throughout the 
literature. 14

According to conventional psychological explanations, 
persons facing a critical threat, whether physical or 
psychological, use certain measures to protect their well-being 
and integrity. Some of the measures are based on instincts and 
neurophysiological reflexes that nature provides to protect the 
species facing unpredictable changes.15 For example, 
individuals may react by fighting or by fleeing, both of which 
may be accompanied by rage or fear in the face of inevitable 
threats to life. Other reactions to severe stressors include 
social responses that move the individuals to decrease their 
association and interaction with people of the same 
sociocultural background, thus becoming solely dependent on 
themselves to resolve their crises.16 Still other responses to 
extreme stress include denial, perplexity, selective attention or 
even amnesia, avoidance and withdrawal, disillusionment and 
discontent, and a limited means of coping with events that are 
based only on intellect or reason. Thus the response does not 
provide for broader perspective, insight, meaning, and 
understanding of highly stressful experiences.17 

Psychoanalytic views have generally considered the 
expression of meaning and values in the face of persecution 
and death as defense mechanisms and reaction formations.18 
The implication is that human beings are willing to live 
merely for the sake of their defense mechanisms and to die 
compensatorily for their reaction formations. Within such a 
paradigm individuals are not able to live and die for ideals and 
values essential to them. 

History shows, however, that human response to suffering 
during a life crisis may reach far beyond the psychological 
formulations of defenses, compensations, and adaptations that 
are presented in the professional psychological literature. That 
is the reason why Viktor Frankl, one of Europe's leading 
psychiatrists, asserted that "human life, under any 
circumstances, never ceases to have a meaning, and that this 
infinite meaning of life includes suffering and dying, privation 
and death."19 When human beings confront inevitability and 
suffering, even under the most difficult circumstances, they 
add a deeper meaning to their lives. In a very critical situation 
an individual has the chance to either 
make use of or to forego the opportunities of 
attaining the moral values that a difficult situation 
may afford him. And this decides whether he is 
worthy of his suffering or not.... It is true that only a 
few people are capable of reaching such high moral 
standards . . . but even one such example is 
sufficient proof that man's inner strength may raise 
him above his outward fate.20 

The fact that human beings can rise above their circumstances 
means that they can make choices and exercise their 
fundamental human freedom. As Frankl states, "the conditions 
do not determine me, but I determine whether I yield to them 
or brave them."21 Human beings can also rise above 
themselves. This is why Nietzsche's meaning of 
transcendence emerged from Zarathustra's character, who 
proclaimed, "I am that which must ever surpass itself."22 
There have been cases where individuals have not perceived 
their sufferings as a painful phenomenon or as a grievous blow 
to their esteem but have received them with gratitude and even 
joy. These individuals, according to historian Arnold Toynbee, 
realized 
that life in this world is not an end in itself and by 
itself; that it is only a fragment (even if an authentic 
one) of some larger whole; and that, in this larger 
whole, the central and dominant . . . feature in the 
soul's spiritual landscape is its relation to God.23 

Hence it is possible for the principle of seeking pleasure and 
avoiding pain to be overruled by the principle of spiritual 
attraction and love, which invites the individual to accept pain 
not for masochistic or compensatory purposes but for spiritual 
fulfillment.24 

In contemporary psychology the spiritual reality of human 
beings and its dynamic influence on their behavior has not 
been considered because it has not been viewed scientifically. 
Yet, if the purpose of science is the discovery of truth, the 
spiritual aspect of men and women as a vital part of their 
being must also be studied. In discussing human responses to 
life stress and suffering, 'Abdu'l-Missagh Ghadirian, a 
Canadian psychiatrist, asserts that 

Faith and belief in spiritual truth, whether it is 
affected by superstition or maintains its purity, 
comprises an integral part of human personality. 
When such an integral part is threatened, the result 
may not always follow the conventional pattern of 
stress-response paradigm.... The response may 
surprisingly be the opposite.25 
The result may be that when a physical or psychological threat 
to life can be explained in light of some spiritual belief, the 
enlightenment that it brings about causes the arousal of 
courage, which, in turn, will put an end to fear and anxiety for 
whatever the consequences may be. Hence, faith gives a new 
meaning to suffering, which transforms fear into joy; love is 
an integral part of this transformation. 

This present study, which uses personal documents written by 
Iranian Bahá'í martyrs between 1979 and 1982, is descriptive 
and historical. The sample studied consisted of ninety-five 
personal documents, authored by forty individuals who were 
later executed for their religious belief and convictions. 
Included in the sample were twenty-seven wills; three defense 
statements; three formal reports of persecution; one set of 
minutes of the eighty-eighth meeting of a Bahá'í youth 
committee; one poem; and sixty-one letters addressed to 
family members, relatives, and friends. The documents were 
gathered during a two-year international search, which 
included contacts with relatives and friends of the martyrs, the 
help of a resourceful person residing in England, a personal 
search of official files of the Persian section of the United 
States National Bahá'í headquarters, and a review of Bahá'í 
publications. The written communications were all copies of 
original documents, or reproductions thereof, translated into 
English by official translators. 

The data in the ninety-five documents reflecting the beliefs 
and responses of the Bahá'í martyrs were collected using a 
method called content analysis.26 Two general hypotheses 
(Hypotheses 1 and 2) were developed, and fourteen 
subhypotheses (Hypotheses la through lg; Hypotheses 2a 
through 2g) were drawn to test these two general 
propositions.27 These hypotheses and subhypotheses were 
tested by analyzing the contents of the martyrs' documents 
using frequency and percentage distributions on seven belief 
components and seven response components.28 The results 
indicated that individuals who were martyred because of their 
distinct beliefs were capable of responding to their unfortunate 
situation in unique and unconventional ways. 

The responses include courage, contentment, acceptance, and 
even joy. As Ghadirian states, "Faith gives a new meaning to 
suffering, transforming fear into joy, a process in which love 
is an important ingredient."29 Regarding suffering, Frankl 
states, "Suffering ceases to be suffering in some way at the 
moment it finds a meaning, such as the meaning of a 
sacrifice."30 Based on an empirical study on mental health, 
Theodore A. Kotchen states that a mind is 
healthy when it has achieved a sufficient store of 
"meaning" to enable it to master suffering.... Now, 
meaning is a broad concept; at best it merely locates 
a syndrome. While various existential authors favor 
one or more of the components of this syndrome, 
the following seem to cover the range of current 
existential writing on the norms of mental health.31 

What Kotchen refers to is the factors of uniqueness, 
responsibility, self-affirmation, transcendence, courage, faith-
commitment, and world view, all of them appearing in the 
beliefs expressed by the Bahá'í martyrs. 

By interrelating theory, methodology, and data, the following 
two major hypotheses and fourteen subhypotheses were 
created and tested. 

Hypothesis I 

The first hypothesis (Hypothesis 1) states that the personal 
documents of the Bahá'í martyrs reveal that their internalized 
beliefs, in the face of severe social stressors, follow an 
unconventially positive stress-belief pattern. An analysis of 
the seven beliefs listed in Table I—uniqueness, responsibility, 
self-affirmation, transcendence, courage, faith-commitment, 
and world view—yields a significant mean percentage of 
occurrence of 95.2 percent.32 The following selections from 
the documents clearly support this proposition: 

Because I'm leaving this world in the path of my 
belief in the reality of God and the Prophets of all 
the previous religions, and with belief in His 
Holiness, the Báb, and His Holiness, Bahá'u'lláh, I 
am happy.— Yadullah Astani33 

I'm happy that in belief in the sacred Bahá'í Faith 
I'm drinking of the cup of martyrdom.—Firuz 
Naimi34 

I have faith . . . that all the events and episodes of 
these past three years have been preordained for the 
sole purpose of the fulfillment of the divine 
prophecies and the establishment of the Kingdom of 
God on earth.—Kamran Samimi35

Life is totally in the hands of the Almighty God of 
mankind. Thus, now you dear ones, like me, should 
also be pleased with the will of God and consider 
this event as solely the ordained Will of His.—
Hashem Farnush36 

You and I should remind ourselves of this fact and 
praise God for it, that this confinement and the 
bearing of any degree of difficulty and adversity, as 
long as it is due to faith and belief and not due to 
any crime, will be sweet and wholesome.— 
Badiollah Farid37 

[I] state and endorse my faith and belief in the 
Oneness of God and the validity of all the 
Manifestations of God; and my faith and certitude 
in . . . the Báb, . . . and the Promised One of all 
ages, . . . Bahá'u'lláh.—Mahmud Faruhar38


Table 1. Frequency Distribution of
Beliefs of Bahá'í Martyrs by Number and Percentage of 
Occurrence 

Belief
No. of Occur.a
% of Occur.
Mean %
Uniqueness
93
97.9

Responsibility
88
92.6

Self-affirmation
86
90.5

Transcendence
88
92.6
95.2
Courage
89
93.7

Faith-commitment
94
98.9

World view
95
100.0

a Number of appearances of each belief in the documents.  
Each belief was evaluated only once in each document.


Uniqueness. Hypothesis la states that the personal documents 
of the Bahá'í martyrs present them as individuals aware of the 
uniqueness of their situation and their relationship to it. Table 
1 shows that this belief—uniqueness—appeared ninety-three 
times, with a rate of occurrence of 97.9 percent. The following 
are some examples of the data that support hypothesis la: 

It is a divine opportunity for all the friends in this 
blessed land at this time of the history of the Faith. 
God must have loved us to have showered us with 
all these calamities. I am deeply grateful to Him for 
this bounty.—Kamran Samimi39

My children, . . . How long is it since I wrote you 
last? Qf course, you will forgive me, for 
Bahá'u'lláh has occupied all my time.... We are 
living through inestimable days that produce 
astonishing feelings in us.... those long hours that 
you sit in meetings with the National Spiritual 
Assembly or the Board Members and assistants, and 
you never know if the meeting will reach its natural 
conclusion or not, but you are totally oblivious to 
the world to all those amazing events that occur all 
around us.—Zhinus Mahmudi40 

They told him just say verbally that "I am not" [a 
Bahá'í], and tonight you will return home and will 
embrace your little daughter.—Shiva Mahmudi 
Asadollahzadeh41 

None of us has any physical security, whether those 
who are in the prison or those who are seemingly 
free.—Jalal 'Azizi42 

The enemies of the Faith are determined to put an 
end to our mortal lives, and we are prepared to 
sacrifice our lives in the path of our sacred goal.—
Hoseyn Khandil43 

We are physically confined behind the prison bars 
with a heart full of the love of the Beloved and a 
soul filled with love of the Friend.—Ehsanollah 
Mehdizadeh44 

You can recant in writing, and give it together with 
a picture and return to the bosom of Islam and be 
freed. Of course, you know what our answer is.—
M. B. (Soheyl) Habibi45 

Responsibily. Hypothesis lb states that the personal documents 
of the Bahá'í martyrs present them as individuals responsible 
for their own existence in the face of severe social stressors, 
capable of accepting an imposed destiny, enduring it where 
necessary, and shaping it where possible. This belief—
responsibility—appeared eighty-eight times with a 92.6 
percent rate of occurrence (see Table 1). The following are 
some examples of the data that support this hypothesis: 

Only one thing matters: to do the work that I must 
do. And what pleasure is hidden in these tasks . . . it 
is higher than kingship—greater than any 
gratification.—Zhinus Mahmudi46 

I seek the good pleasure of God and am prepared 
for martyrdom.—Yadullah Vahdat47 

We, Bahá'ís of Iran, thanks be to the blessings of 
God, have recognized the importance of this 
particular period, and have found our supreme goal. 
This is the cause of much thanks, because when a 
person recognizes his goal, and achieving it 
becomes his volition and action, he will not think of 
any difficulty. To achieve that goal, he'll be ready 
to accept any difficulty and ordeal with heart and 
soul.—Eskandar 'Azizi48 

I have prayed tens of times that God may grant me 
to drink of the wine of martyrdom and that my 
sacrifice may result in other friends' release and 
return to the warmth and comfort of their homes 
and families.—Yadullah Vahdat49 

O my God! May my life be sacrificed for Thy 
lovers!—M. B. (Soheyl) Habibi50 

I feel it indeed a privilege to be here in Iran. I am 
most grateful to Him for this bounty.—Kamran 
Samimi51 

Self-Affirmation. Hypothesis lc states that the personal 
documents of the Bahá'í martyrs show them as individuals 
who are aware of their ability to affirm their being with a 
resolute mind and will. This belief—self-affirmation—
appeared eighty-six times, with a 90.5 percent of occurrence 
(see Table 1). The following are some examples of the data 
that support hypothesis lc: 

And until the last moment of life we will remain 
loyal to our covenant.—M. B. (Soheyl) Habibi52 

Mother, just as I had written you before, do not ask 
for the head that you have given in the path of the 
Beloved, remain firm and staunch, and prepare 
yourself for any episode.—Ehsanollah 
Mehdizadeh53 

Don't mourn for me, because I know all that has 
taken place ending with my execution is by the Will 
of God.—Bihruz Sanai54 

In spite of all these do you for a moment think that I 
will give up all these for a quiet and restful life 
anywhere in the world? Would you for a moment 
think that I am worried or nervous as to what may 
happen to me? I will not change this for all the 
world. I am supremely grateful to Him for having 
provided this opportunity for me to do in my 
humble way what I could contribute with the rest of 
the friends.—Kamran Samimi55 

Behold now! See the greatness of the Blessed 
Beauty [Babá'u'lláh], see what service is, what 
endurance is, what courage is, what heroism is and 
finally see what martyrdom is!—Zarrin Moqimi 
Abyaneh56 

And the rest of us are ready with our lives prepared 
to be sacrificed.—Zhinus Mahmudi57 

I said that I was always studying and that 
investigation of the truth was one of the principles 
of the Bahá'í Faith and that I had spent my entire 
life investigating and that I had found the truth and 
would not, under any circumstance, recant my 
Faith.— Ziaullah Ahrari58 

Transcendence. Hypothesis 1d states that the personal 
documents of the Bahá'í martyrs indicate that these 
individuals are not rigidly confined to a specific world in time. 
This belief—transcendence—appeared eighty-eight times, 
with a 92.6 percent rate of occurrence (see Table 1). The 
following are some examples of the data that support this 
hypothesis: 

In this glorious journey [referring to his 
martyrdom], I'm in the company of Hashem 
Farnush and Bozorg Alaviyan.—Farhang 
Mavaddat59 

We are at His Threshold until such time that the 
soul will leave the body.... the true eternal marriage 
always exists and with the decay of the manifest 
body, it will not be destroyed.—Hashem Farnush60

I surrender it [my life] for the good of humanity.—
Mehdi Anvari61

Know, for a truth that the Will of His Holiness, 
Bahá'u'lláh, had been on this so that a few drops of 
the blood of this insignificant being would be 
sacrificed for the nurturance of the tree of His 
beloved Cause. This itself is an absolute good.—
Jadidullah Ashraf62

Everything is so unique and full of previously 
unknown, beautiful feelings that I am extremely 
pleased.... In your opinion, doesn't it bring joy to 
the individual who instead of reading the history, is 
in the middle of history?—Zhinus Mahmudi63

One can easily explain this state of detachment and 
lack of anxiety: absolute trust in His will.—Kamran 
Samimi64

Courage. Hypothesis le states that the personal documents of 
the Bahá'í martyrs show that they withstand danger or 
extreme difficulty without fear and without detracting from 
the meaning of their own existence. This belief—courage—
appeared eighty-nine times, with a 93.7 percent rate of 
occurrence (see Table 1). The following are some examples of 
the data that support this hypothosis: 

The rest of us are ready to be sacrificed. . . . Our 
new Assembly has been formed and again the work 
has begun. The new Assembly even began its work 
before the expiration of 24 hours from the time of 
the arrest of those dear ones, and I have the honor to 
be at their service.—Zhinus Mahmudi65 

The third group have been elected to replace us as 
soon as we are arrested. The same provisions are 
made for all the LSA's [assemblies].—Kamran 
Samimi66 

I swear by Thy might, O God, that all these 
calamities are sweeter than any nectar and more 
pleasing than any delight.— Bahá'u'lláh, quoted by 
Zhinus Mahmudi67 

Service to the Faith has always been my heart's 
desire.... Now I find there is another way destined 
for me to serve the Faith of God.... In spite of 
available opportunities I did not escape, and went to 
the court to defend the Faith.—Hoseyn Khandil68 

I have reached the fulfillment of my wish—11:00 
p.m., 6/13/81, before my martyrdom.—M. B. 
(Soheyl) Habibi69 

Faith-Commitment. Hypothesis lf states that the personal 
documents of the Bahá'í martyrs reveal their belief in, and 
commitment to, the validity and attainability of some goal or 
value set by their own intentions. This belief—faith-
commitment—appeared ninety-four times, with a 98.9 percent 
rate of occurrence (see Table 1). The following are some 
examples of the data that support this hypothesis: 

I hope that our insignificant blood will water the 
blessed tree of the Cause of God, that the Faith will 
soon gain its independence and the Bahá'ís of Iran 
their freedom, and that future generations will be 
able to serve the Cause with the greatest comfort.—
Tarazollah Khozeyn70

The Blessed Beauty [Bahá'u'lláh] with His New 
World Order has created a new creation and has 
given new standards and criterions [sic].—Kamran 
Samimi71

Now that the Will of God has destined it in this 
manner, I have the utmost pleasure. I'm being 
executed only because I am a Bahá'í.—Bozorg 
'Alaviyan72

Today, every devoted Bahá'í individual must thank 
the Threshold of God a hundred thousand times, 
that the Promised Day and the fulfillment of the 
Divine prophecies have come, and that through the 
Iranian revolution, everyone has heard about the 
Divine Cause.—Eskandar 'Azizi73

I beseech Thee, O God, by the sacred blood of the 
Báb, the Exalted One, to cause us to attain a good 
ending. I supplicate God to grant me such a degree 
of faith and power as not to cause my footsteps to 
falter in the face of tribulations, even of martyrdom, 
and make me not fail to attain the glorious end, the 
greatest honor.—Yadullah Vahdat74

It is important that you must think and live for the 
Cause. Together with your regular daily activities, 
do not forget service to the world of humanity, 
teaching, and service in the Cause.—Shidrokh 
Amir-Kiya Baqa75 

In confession to the oneness of the essence of the 
conspicuous God and the truth of all the Prophets 
and Messengers such as His Holiness, Moses; His 
Holiness, Christ; His Holiness, Muhammad; and the 
station of the Guardians of Shi'ah Islam; and the 
station of the Forerunnership of the Báb; and the 
Revelator, His Holiness, Bahá'u'lláh; and the 
station of His Holiness 'Abdu'l-Bahá, as the 
expounder of the Words of God; and the Beloved 
Guardian of the Faith, and complete obedience of 
me, Parviz Firuzi, to the Bahá'í Institutions, I make 
my will in the last hour of my life.—Parviz Firuzi76 

World View. Hypothesis Ig states that the personal documents 
of the Bahá'í martyrs show that these individuals existed in 
three modes of the world: the natural or biological world, the 
world of relationships among human beings, and the world 
uniquely present for them in terms of their experience of 
martyrdom and their chosen attitude toward it. This belief—
world view—appeared ninety-five times, with a 100 percent 
rate of occurrence (see Table 1). The following are some 
examples of the data that support this hypothesis: 

The only request that I have from my wife is for her 
to publish, in the future, the books I have written, 
because they are the only trace of my thirty years of 
labor that have remained behind.—Kamalu'd-Din 
Bakhtavar77 

In this "palace" [prison] that my fellow Bahá'ís and 
I now occupy, I am not sad; rather, I am happier 
than ever before in all the years of my life.—Sattar 
Khushkhu78 

My nice Negar, I have given a watch and a ring, so 
that they would give them to you. They are 
supposed to also hand over to you some small items 
such as: my wallet, Nazi's and your picture, a pair 
of glasses, a pullover, a pair of pants, a notebook 
and newspapers related to my court hearing, sheets 
and other minor things.—Behruz Sanai79

There is no place for worry if a few individuals 
sacrifice their lives and belongings for this 
important goal. Glory be unto them whose wealth 
and lives have been sacrificed in this path.—
Eskandar Azizi80

In my pocket, I have about four hundred tumans 
[fifty dollars] which I ask that you spend in the path 
of God.—Masih Farhangi81

I kiss my dear Sahba many and many times; my 
dear Nava the same way. In my place also caress 
them more every day and on my behalf kiss their 
faces many times. I request that, at the beginning, 
you will not leave my dear mother alone, whose 
services and the troubles that she has taken are all in 
front of me and are as manifest as the bright 
daylight. Also apply the same kindness to your own 
family and my dear brother.—Hashem Farnush82 

The Bahá'í individual does not belong to himself. 
Rather, he belongs to the Bahá'í world.—Yadullah 
Vahdat83 

You will be asleep when I am being executed.... I 
wish I could see you and embrace you now for the 
last time.... My dear one, in these last moments of 
my life, only and only you and Nazi are in front of 
my eyes.... Raise my nice Nazi according to how I 
would have brought her up myself.—Behruz 
Sanai84 

I had started this evening to make a bracelet for my 
dear Fariba and intended to weave her initials, F. 
M., into the design. Unfortunately I had no time to 
finish it; it was left behind when we were 
transferred here. I wish I had time to weave 
bracelets for Fariba and Anita, but this was not to 
be.—Tarazollah Khozeyn85 

Ah, those Hamadan friends—may I offer up my life 
for all of them, for every one of them, for all their 
heroism and sacrifice that has set forward the Cause 
by two hundred years.—Zhinus Mahmudi86 

Please give my deepest affection to all my dear ones 
and the children. I have been so pleased with all of 
them and will pray for their well-being and 
happiness from the worlds beyond. At this very 
moment, friends and relatives are all in my 
thoughts, their faces lifelike in my mind.—Masih 
Farhangi87 

Overall, dear Zhinus should keep her heart pure and 
convince herself that her spouse separated from her 
in a condition which all of his being was in memory 
of her, of her kindnesses, and those of the dear 
relatives.—Hashem Farnush88 

Isn't it a glorious and golden opportunity for us to 
be present at this time when we witness the 
unfoldment of the drama of the Kingdom of God on 
earth?—Kamran Samimi89 

If one attains to the recognition of truth, he will 
never be tormented with worries.—Mihdi Anvari90

Since I was tried as a Bahá'í, and there were no 
other allegations, I am extremely happy.—Ziaullah 
Ahrari91

There is a finality to this mortal life, and how 
wonderful that this finality is accompanied by 
honor, truth, and devotion.. . . I'm happy that my 
life had a delightful ending.—Hoseyn Motlaq92

Every moment we are beholding a portion of the 
Divine plan and design. lt is full of magnificence.—
Zhinus Mahmudi93

Life here is as exciting and hopeful as ever.—
Kamran Samimi94 

Hypothesis 2 

The second hypothesis (Hypothesis 2) states that the personal 
documents of the Bahá'í martyrs reveal that they respond to 
severe social stressors in an unconventionally positive way. 
An analysis of seven responses listed in Table 2—
acknowledgment and forebearance, perceptivity and full 
attention, acceptance and affiliation, tolerance and love, 
certitude and contentment, reliance on personal faith and 
belief, and reason and reaching beyond reason—yielded a 
mean percentage of 9l.9 percent. The following are some 
examples of the data that support this hypothesis: 

It is stated in our Sacred Writings that we Bahá'ís should 
always observe calmness dignity and moderation.... whatever 
is in the true essence of my heart is recorded in them [Sacred 
Writings].—Sohrab (Mohammad) Habibi95 

It always gives me great joy sharing with you the feeling of 
ecstasy I have for the privilege of being present at this time in 
the land of the Blessed Beauty [Bahá'u'lláh].—Kamran 
Samimi96 

Right now we are prepared to endure a hundred times more. 
Only pray that we may be worthy to endure.—Zhinus 
Mahmudi97 

How sweet is that moment, when my heart will become the 
target of the dart; woe be unto me if the signing of that 
ordained fate will be delayed.—Habibollah Owji98 

I have to bring to your attention that basically a Bahá'í 
believes in the oneness of mankind and the establishment of 
peace and unity in the world. In most of the countries, the 
Bahá'í community has been identified with these beliefs and 
expressions.—Fereydun Faridani99 

Your Dad is most happy and full of gratitude.—Kamran 
Samimi100

Table 2. Frequency Distribution of
Responses of Bahá'í Martyrs by Number
and Percentage of Occurrence

Response
No. of Occur.a
% of Occur.
Mean %
Acknowledgment and forbearance
90
94.7

Perceptivity and full attention
95
100.0

Acceptance and affiliation
82
86.3

Tolerance and love
78
82.1

Certitude and contentment
84
88.4
91.9
Reliance on personal faith and belief
93
97.9

Reason and reaching beyond reason (faith)
89
93.7

aNumber of appearances of each type of response in the 
documents.  
Each response type was evaluated only once in each 
document.

Acknowledgment and Forbearance. Hypothesis 2a states that 
the personal documents of the Bahá'í martyrs demonstrate that 
these individuals acknowledge their predicament and respond 
to it with forbearance. This response—acknowledgment and 
forbearance— appeared ninety times, with a 94.7 percent rate 
of occurrence (see Table 2.) The following are some examples 
of the data that support this hypothesis: 

I lay all my affairs in the hands of God. The very 
first day I came to this prison, I happily accepted 
everything that was happening to me in the path of 
Bahá'u'lláh.—Yadullah Vahdat101

I thank God that I am able to sacrifice my life for 
my religion.... I counsel all my children and 
relatives to be patient and forebearing before the 
will of God as I, myself, bow my head before His 
wish and good pleasure.—Hedayatollah Dehqanil02

During our imprisonment, except for brief periods 
when we were obliged to rest, we have filled our 
hours with prayers.—Mehdi Anvaril03

Dear mother, brother and Zhinus, since in our heart 
we believe in the reality of the next world and its 
spiritual nature and confess with all our being to the 
Will of the Almighty God, then I request of you to 
abstain, as much as possible, from crying, weeping 
and moaning.—Hashem Farnushl04 

I beg you not to be perturbed. Rest assured that this 
has been the Will of God and be pleased with His 
pleasure and be thankful.—Mohammad Mansuri105 

Deep down in my heart I feel most happy and 
serene that all these sufferings and persecutions will 
only help to bring about the unfailing realization of 
His lifegiving promise of the triumph of His Cause. 
This gives me hope, confidence, courage and 
strength. For all these I am thankful.— Kamran 
Samimil06 

Perceptivity and Fall Attention. Hypothesis 2b states that the 
personal documents of the Bahá'í martyrs reveal that these 
individuals respond to their situation with perceptivity and full 
attention. This response appeared ninety-five times, with a 100 
percent rate of occurrence (see Table 2). The following are 
some examples of the data that support this hypothesis: 

It is now 11 PM. We have been transferred from the 
prison to the court premises. They are about to 
execute all seven of us. Praised be to God, we are 
all in the utmost submission to His will and are 
most content! God willing, we shall have a good 
ending. I hereby bid farewell to you dear ones and 
to other members of the family.—Tarazollah 
Khozeynl07 

In another hour eight other friends and I will be 
executed by the firing squad.— Habibollah 
Tahqiqil08 

They arrested [me] under the charge of membership 
in the Assembly of Karaj.— Farhang Mavaddatl09 

It should be understood that our imprisonment was 
primarily in accordance with the Divine Will. It was 
destined that we play a minor role in the plan for the 
proclamation of the Faith of God throughout the 
world. No other reason for our arrest existed except 
that we are Bahá'ís.—Hoseyn Khandilll0 

I know that in another moment I am not here.... Pray 
for the forgiveness of my soul.—Behruz Sanai 111 

In these moments that I'm busy writing this letter, I 
am in a very good psychological state.—Bozorg 
'Alaviyanll2 

Acceptance and Affiliation. Hypothesis 2c states that the 
personal documents of the Bahá'í martyrs reveal that these 
individuals respond to their suffering with acceptance and 
affiliative external attitudes (that is, maintaining a position of 
connection and association with humankind, including people 
involved in their persecution and death sentence). This 
response—acceptance and affiliation—appeared eighty-two 
times, with an 86.3 percent rate of occurrence (see Table 2). 
The following are some examples of the data that support this 
hypothesis: 

I'm ready for any event that God has endorsed.—Ehsanollah 
Mehdizadehl13 

My feelings, dear children, are complete submission and total 
dedication. Only one thing counts: to do the work that I must 
do. And what pleasure is hidden in these tasks, this, too, I 
cannot really describe for you.—Zhinus Mahmudil14 

In a few hours I will be put before the firing squad together 
with my spiritual brother, dear Mr. Yadullah Astani. I'm 
pleased and grateful to everyone. Please pray for the spiritual 
progress of our souls.—Faramarz Samandaril15 

I pray for those who are judging and taking action against me 
in this manner and I hope the truth will come out for ail the 
people.—Hoseyn Motlaqll6 

If the imprisonment of these wronged ones has caused the 
proclamation of His Faith, then we hope to be in this prison 
until the end of our lives.—Yadullah Vahdatll7

My dearly loved ones, when you see cases like these and when 
you come across such devoted souls you long for having had a 
thousand lives to give them in the path of such pure dear souls 
who are the true manifestations of love, faith, and a new 
creation.—Kamran Samimill8

Tolerance and love. Hypothesis 2d states that the personal 
documents of the Bahá'í martyrs show that these individuals 
transformed the fight or flight responses into expressions of 
tolerance and love. This response—tolerance and love—
appeared seventy-eight times with an 82.1 percent rate of 
occurrence (see Table 2). Therefore, the Bahá'í martyrs 
responded with atypical tolerance and love in the midst of 
persecution and impending execution. The following are some 
examples of the data that support this hypothesis: 

I call to mind the poem: 
The fire of love is alive 
   even when Death arrives; 
It is a lamp carried from 
this house to the other!—Yadullah Vahdat 
119

The flame of love will not be quenched by water 
and the fire of affection will not be extinguished by 
storms.—Zarrin Moqimi Abyaneh 120 

Words fall short in translating our ecstasy and 
spiritual experience.—Kamran Samimi121

I'm very thankful, and up to now I have been 
happy.—Farhang Mavaddat122 

I seek the good pleasure of God and am prepared 
for martyrdom. I am free of worry.—Yadullah 
Vahdatl23 

The fire of love cannot be quenched by water nor 
extinguished by a breeze.— Mehdi Anvaril24 

Certitude and Contentment. Hypothesis 2e states that the 
personal documents of the Bahá'í martyrs reveal that these 
individuals respond with an increased sense of purpose in life, 
with certitude and contentment of the meaning of their 
suffering. This response— certitude and contentment—
appeared eighty-four times, with an 88.4 percent rate of 
occurrence (see Table 2). The following are some examples of 
the data that support this hypothesis: 

I want you to know that I lack nothing. There is no 
sorrow—absolutely no difficulties. I am content, 
well, fortunate, assured, serene, full of energy, and 
thankful. Whatever should happen, there could be 
nothing better.—Zhinus Mahmudi125 

Every person's beginning and end are subject to the 
will of Almighty God, and faith in Him brings 
solace to the heart and tranquility to the soul and 
spirit. I feel contented, accepting and 
disencumbered.—Masih Farhangi126 

Believe me, I am not disturbed or sad but 
overwhelmed with inexpressible emotions.—
Hedayatollah Dehqani 127 

The impact of the present hardships and 
persecutions has produced unimaginable and 
glorious fruits and has helped to discover pure, 
valiant, devoted, selfless heroes and heroines, gems 
of human existence, in short it has produced a new 
creation and has given a second birth.—Kamran 
Samimi128 

As time goes by, we realize the greatness of the 
Cause of God and its teachings more and more. 
Thanks be to God that I recognized the Divine 
Cause.—Shidrukh Amir-Kiya Baga129 

Reliance on Personal Faith and Belief: Hypothesis 2f states 
that the personal documents of the Bahá'í martyrs show that 
these individuals respond to their situation with increased 
reliance on personal faith and belief. This response appeared 
ninety-three times with a 97.9 percent rate of occurrence (see 
Table 2). The following are some examples of the data that 
support this hypothesis: 

The means which change this fire [of tribulation] 
into a rose garden are the rains of reliance on God 
and the sweet breezes of devotion.—Mehdi 
Anvari130 

O God, Thou art aware that I have no other wish 
than to attain a good end—O God, grant that we 
may win Thy good pleasure.—Yadullah Vahdat131

Personally, I'm not pleased at all that you pray to 
God for me with such a down feeling and sorrowful 
approach. I'm not pleased at all. Instead, I request 
of you that with a heart full of hope, joy, and bliss 
ask God to assist us during this period, so that we'll 
come out victorious from the divine tests.... 
whatever is His Will, we accept and we are pleased 
with His pleasure.— Eskandar 'Azizi132 

Maintain the gem of faith.—Badiollah Farid133 

Because I consider this episode as only the Will of 
God, I request of my survivors not to be perturbed 
by this event and to leave all the matters in His 
Hand. He doeth what he pleaseth. Always rely on 
Him.— Manuchehr Farzaneh-Moayyad134 

We are at His Threshold until such time that the 
soul will leave the body.—Hashem Farnush135 

Because the main goal is the progress of the Cause 
of the Blessed Beauty [Bahá'u'lláh], the being or 
non-being of these servants who are attached to this 
Great Divine Cause is not important.—Kamran 
Samimi136 

Reason and Reacting Beyond Reason (Faith). Hypothesis 2g 
states that the personal documents of the Bahá'í martyrs reveal 
that these individuals respond to their situation through reason 
and by reaching beyond reason to faith in the fulfillment of a 
noble purpose. This response appeared eighty-nine times with 
a 93.7 percent rate of occurrence (see Table 2). The following 
are some examples of the data that support this hypothesis: 

It was His Will, and I saw the mystery of sacrifice with my 
inner eyes.—Zarrin Moqimi Abyaneh137 

The confirmation of the Blessed Beauty [Bahá'u'lláh] has 
been tangible. One cannot simply comprehend what power 
brings this transformation and transmutes the very essence of 
the individuals.—Kamran Samimil38 

All these events are for the purpose of the progress of the 
Cause and the advancement of this blessed Faith.—Shiva 
Mahmudi Asadollahzadehl39 

Additional Findings 
 
Additional findings revealed that out of ninety-five documents 
there were seven documents (7.4 percent) written by three 
individuals who, at the time of writing, did not convey a fully 
unconventional internalized belief system and a resolute 
response. Instead of the frequently found congruous response 
to a belief system, these few documents communicated a lack 
of harmony between belief and response when the individuals 
were first persecuted and while they underwent a period of 
transition, shock, preparation, and adjustment. 

Overall, the three authors wrote fourteen documents, seven of 
which fall into the category of additional findings. One of 
them wrote two documents. There was a considerable change 
in response between this author's first and second 
communications (his will). The last document contained a 
more welcoming response to martyrdom. The second author 
wrote eight letters. The first three indicated a lack of 
internalization of expected beliefs; the following five 
communications expressed a gradual change in response that 
appeared to be more receptive to the proximate execution. The 
third martyr wrote four letters; three of these communications 
revealed the author's questioning of his plight. The last 
available letter showed a more compatible relationship 
between the response to death and the commitment to an 
unconventionally positive belief system. 

Conclusion 
 
The theory of martyrdom emerging from the study of ninety-
five documents of Bahá'í martyrs in Iran between 1979 and 
1982 affirms that the Bahá'í martyrs' beliefs and responses in 
the face of persecution and imminent execution were of an 
atypical nature and unconventionally positive. The beliefs 
characterized by uniqueness, responsibility, self-affirmation, 
transcendence, courage, faith-commitment, and world view 
sustained and transformed the Bahá'í martyrs' existence in the 
presence of severe social stressors. These beliefs, in the light 
of an inner spiritual reality, created a tolerance for suffering 
that went far beyond the psychological formulations of 
defenses, reaction formations, compensatory mechanisms, and 
adaptation. The martyrs did not respond to suffering with 
grievous expressions and psychological disturbances but 
acknowledged it with forbearance. Without losing their 
perceptivity and full attention of the events, they accepted 
their fate and continued to manifest affiliative expressions 
with the external world. They revealed tolerance and love 
within their predicament. They expressed certitude and 
contentment regarding their personal choice of sacrifice. They 
relied on personal faith and belief in the fulfillment of a noble 
purpose. Indeed, they became a "new creation"; at the core of 
their being, a psychospiritual dynamic transformation led them 
to transcend a painful reality and reach their ultimate and most 
cherished purpose in life—namely, finding true liberty in 
submission to the Will of God. These words of T. S. Eliot 
constitute a highly appropriate conclusion: 

a martyrdom is never the design of men; for the true 
martyr is he who has become  the instrument of 
God, who has lost his will in the will of God, not 
lost it but found it, for he has found freedom in 
submission to God. The martyr no longer desires 
anything for himself, not even the glory of 
martyrdom.140